The Carbon Disclosure Project ranked responses from 16 manufacturers on three main issues:

Progress towards meeting emissions standards

Strategies on using self-driving technology and renewable energies

Management incentives to lower carbon emissions

The results put German carmakers BMW and Daimler in pole position and Subaru of Japan bringing up the rear.

Carmakers are facing increasing costs to comply with stricter emission regulations. The CDP expects these will rise three-fold by 2025 to more than $2,200 to outfit each vehicle with carbon dioxide caps. In Europe, where new emissions rules are set to take effect in 2021, half of the companies surveyed by the group could face fines. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles NV is the most at risk and may have to pay a penalty of 938 million euros ($1.1 billion), it said.

General Motors stands out as one of the most ambitious when it comes to setting targets for automation, ride-sharing and electrification, followed by Volkswagen AG and BMW, according to the study. Yet carmakers’ spending on research and development, which is 4.6 percent of sales on average -- relatively high compared to most other sectors --- lags behind tech companies entering the market such as Google, Apple, Baidu and Uber, it said.

Kia Motors, Great Wall Motor and Volvo owner Geely Automobiles Holding did not respond to the CDP survey.

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