For Muslim smokers, the challenge is even greater as they must refrain also from smoking during daylight hours. The obligation to fast during Ramadan is already a test of self-discipline and endurance, but when coupled with the struggle of nicotine withdrawal, it becomes an even more daunting task.

Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world, estimated at 231 million, accounting for 86.7 percent of the nation's population and 13 percent of the global Muslim population. Despite being home to the largest Muslim population, it is quite ironic that Indonesia ranks third globally in terms of the number of smokers, with an estimated 81.35 million smokers.

Several facts can explain why Indonesia, as a Muslim-majority country, still has one of the highest numbers of smokers in the world. First, Muslim smokers may not be aware of the Islamic teachings on smoking. Second, unlike alcohol, which is explicitly prohibited in Islam, smoking is not specifically banned because there is no text in the Quran or sunna (traditional portion of Islamic law) that addresses the issue of smoking.

Tobacco smoking did not exist during the time of the Prophet Muhammad in the 7^th century and was unknown to Muslims until the 11^th century of hijra. Some Muslims believe that smoking is the only acceptable indulgence and may resist any new rules prohibiting smoking.

Third, Muslims may smoke to cope with the heavy burdens of life and try to relieve stress by smoking. Fourth, Muslim youngsters may start smoking to demonstrate that they have grown up. Most smokers in Indonesia start smoking between the ages of 16 and 18 years.

So, what are the historical rules governing smoking in Islam? Why, to date, has smoking not yet been universally declared haram?

Based on a report in the World Health Organization (WHO) publication series The Right Path to Health: Health Education Through Religion entitled Islamic Rules on Smoking, the early verdict on tobacco was issued in Morocco in 1602. King Ahmad al-Mansur consulted religious scholars in Fez for guidance on smoking, and the Grand Mufti and the Wali of Sila ruled that smoking was prohibited in Islam.

However, this ruling had little impact on tobacco use in the kingdom. The mufti then issued a second ruling that explicitly forbade the use of all "intoxicants and harmful substances" in Islam. The chief justice of Fez added a binding order to prohibit tobacco.

Despite this categorical prohibition, it was unsuccessful, and the mob killed the chief justice, while the mufti and other scholars who supported his ruling fled the country.

The modern ruling on smoking in Islam can be divided into three categories. First, some say it is permissible based on the principle of the "presumption of halal", which considers things halal unless declared otherwise. Second, some scholars believe that smoking harms the body and consider it haram. Third, there are those who waver between the usefulness and harm of smoking.

According to the eminent Muslim scholar the late Yusuf Al Qardhawi there should no longer be any disagreement among Islamic scholars regarding the issue of smoking because of the widespread knowledge about its health hazards. Therefore, they should undoubtedly consider it prohibited or haram. In Indonesia, the top Islamic body, Indonesia Ulama Council (UI), released a fatwa declaring smoking haram in 2009, only to spark public anger and debate.

The government has made several efforts to reduce tobacco consumption in the country. Unfortunately, progress has been slow at the national level, except for a pictorial health warning that takes up 40 percent of cigarette packs. While some subnational governments have enacted smoke-free regulations and partial tobacco advertising bans, Indonesia is one of the few countries that still allows cigarette advertisements on television, and its cigarette tax is among the lowest in the world.

The low cigarette tax in Indonesia means that smokers can spend anywhere from Rp 20,000 (US$1.33) to over Rp 150,000 on cigarettes per week.

So, what other measures can be taken to reduce smoking in Indonesia besides the aforementioned efforts? Several measures can be taken to decrease the prevalence of tobacco use in predominantly Muslim communities. One such measure is to integrate religious perspectives on tobacco usage.

Second, educating the public about the dangers of tobacco use through the school system is also possible.

Third, it is imperative for those who engage in the noble task of educating the young generation to give the youth a clear idea about manhood and womanhood. All educators and religious scholars are responsible for making the youth aware that manhood is not defined by smoking cigarettes. In Islam, men and women earn respect through knowledge, moral values and good manners.

Finally, a formal smoke cessation program for the community could be provided after Ramadan. In the context of Ramadan, the fasting atmosphere presents a special chance for smokers to quit smoking during the day and reduce their nicotine addiction.

The improvement in nicotine dependence can pave the way for the success of smoking cessation programs held after Ramadan, as smokers may be able to reduce their cigarette intake and maintain this reduction after Ramadan.

There is no more room for debate on the smoking rules in Islam actually. The 2022 statistics indicate that tobacco claims the lives of over 7 million people, two and a half times more lethal than alcohol. In addition, roughly 1.2 million individuals who do not smoke lose their lives due to exposure to second-hand smoke.

So, how can a substance responsible for so many deaths be considered halal? Let Ramadan be the month when Muslims collectively quit smoking for life and improve their overall health and well-being. Happy Ramadan!

 ***

The writer is a senior lecturer, deputy director of the Graduate School of Management, and head of Halal Clusters at the University of Indonesia’s School of Economics and Business.