This shift by one of the world’s largest social media platforms has also underscored a growing realization within the journalism industry: Social media cannot be the sole source of information or the main area of investment for publishers. As newsrooms grapple with declining public trust and shrinking revenues, many are questioning their heavy reliance on platforms that increasingly deprioritize fact-based content in favor of viral, algorithm-driven engagement.

At the same time, a parallel conversation is emerging about how to combat misinformation that is expected to proliferate further on social platforms in the absence of robust checks. Social media’s unparalleled reach and influence make it a powerful vector for fake news, leaving journalists, policymakers and researchers searching for new strategies to protect the integrity of information and limit its societal damage.

In this context, a new study, conducted in collaboration between the Catholic University of Milan, and the University of Siena, sheds light on the complex interplay between individual traits, topic familiarity and susceptibility to fake news. The study is part of an ongoing project called “Countercons - Countering Conspiracy Beliefs: The Role of Prebunking Strategies (2023-2025)”, founded by the Italian Ministry of University and Research, which examines the psychosocial characteristics underlying the tendency to believe in false and misleading information, and identifies effective communication and prevention strategies to reduce this tendency and promote critical thinking.

Traditional methods for combating misinformation, such as fact-checking and debunking, have faced significant limitations. These approaches often require individuals to possess prior knowledge, engage in effortful cognitive processes and overcome potential psychological resistance. Prebunking, a preventive strategy, has emerged as a promising alternative.

Based on the principle of psychological inoculation, prebunking equips individuals with the tools to recognize and resist misinformation before it takes hold.

The study has three misinformation topics, namely climate change, conflict in Ukraine and vaccines, and evaluates three distinct prebunking strategies, each with its unique method and focus.

Factual prebunking involves presenting verified information while warning participants about the prevalence of misinformation. While straightforward, its effectiveness depends heavily on individuals’ willingness to accept and process factual content.

Counterfactual prebunking (i.e., “If only…”), by contrast, encourages participants to engage in hypothetical reasoning, critically examining scenarios to assess their plausibility. This approach fosters deeper, more systematic information processing.

Lastly, metacognitive awareness prebunking focuses on raising awareness of cognitive biases, such as agenticity (the tendency to ascribe agency to an event where none exists) and patternicity (the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns and connections among unrelated events), which make individuals susceptible to conspiracy beliefs. This method is based on thinking about how we reason when we read the news. For example, one could ask oneself what thinking errors might have led one to believe such news. By helping participants recognize these biases in their thinking, it promotes greater intellectual humility and critical reasoning.

The study highlights wide variability in participants’ ability to identify fake news, shaped by the topic and individual traits.

Misinformation about vaccines and climate change was particularly misleading, likely due to limited public familiarity with scientific issues. In contrast, true news about the Ukraine conflict faced greater skepticism, underscoring how misinformation saturation fosters distrust even of accurate content.

Psychological factors also played a significant role. Participants with mentalities more highly susceptible to conspiracy theories or scientific populist attitudes, marked by distrust of expert knowledge and preference for simple explanations, were less able to discern fake news, especially on scientific topics.

Furthermore, a strong link emerged between a right-wing political orientation and susceptibility to misinformation, consistent with previous findings connecting such beliefs to conspiracy theories and distrust of mainstream narratives.

The study’s findings suggest that prebunking strategies hold potential for combating misinformation. Counterfactual prebunking emerged as the most effective method, with its emphasis on critical evaluation of hypothetical scenarios fostering a deeper engagement with information. This approach enhanced participants’ ability to discern fake news by prompting analytical reasoning and encouraging systematic thought processes.

In contrast, factual prebunking did not show a significant advantage over the control condition. This highlights the limitations of merely presenting accurate information without equipping individuals to critically assess it.

Metacognitive awareness prebunking, while effective, showed slightly weaker results than counterfactual methods. Its reliance on participants recognizing their cognitive biases and understanding the concept of intellectual humility may require additional effort and prior knowledge, potentially limiting its impact.

One concerning finding was the backlash effect observed among participants with high levels of conspiracy mentality or scientific populism. While prebunking improved the ability to detect fake news overall, it sometimes increased skepticism toward true news among these individuals. This highlights the challenge of addressing entrenched distrust in traditional media and official narratives, as interventions targeting misinformation can inadvertently foster broader distrust.

The results of this study underscore the need for nuanced strategies in the fight against misinformation. Counterfactual prebunking shows promise for media literacy campaigns and educational initiatives, as its focus on fostering critical thinking and analytical reasoning can empower individuals to navigate the complexities of modern information ecosystems.

However, the study also highlights the risks of blanket interventions. Prebunking approaches must be tailored to account for individual psychological traits and existing biases. For those with entrenched conspiracist beliefs, such interventions may require additional strategies to avoid reinforcing skepticism.

The findings point to the necessity of further research into the scalability of prebunking interventions, particularly in real-world settings like social media platforms. As misinformation continues to erode public trust and polarize societies, proactive approaches that foster resilience against manipulation are more critical than ever.

Equipping individuals with the tools to evaluate information critically offers a path forward in the battle against misinformation. By addressing the cognitive and psychological vulnerabilities that fuel the spread of fake news, prebunking can help rebuild trust and promote informed public discourse.

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The writer is a professor of social psychology at the Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Milan, where she also directs the Psychology, Law and Policy Lab (PsyLab). The article is republished under a Creative Commons license.